INFLUENZA
Influenza, commonly referred to as the flu, is an infectious disease caused by RNA viruses of the family Orthomyxoviridae (the influenza viruses), that affects birds and mammals. The most common symptoms of the disease are chills, fever, sore throat, muscle pains, severe headache, coughing, weakness/fatigue and general discomfort.
Typically, influenza is transmitted through the air by coughs or sneezes, creating aerosols containing the virus. Influenza can also be transmitted by direct contact with bird droppings or nasal secretions, or through contact with contaminated surfaces. Airborne aerosols have been thought to cause most infections, although which means of transmission is most important is not absolutely clear. Influenza viruses can be inactivated by sunlight, disinfectants and detergents. As the virus can be inactivated by soap, frequent hand washing reduces the risk of infection.
1. Types of virus
Structure of the influenza virion. The hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA) proteins are shown on the surface of the particle. The viral RNAs that make up http://www.blogger.com/img/blank.gifthe genome are shown as red coils inside the particle and bound to Ribonuclear Proteins (RNPs).
In virus classification influenza viruses are RNA viruses that make up three of the five genera of the family Orthomyxoviridae
• Influenzavirus A
• Influenzavirus B
• Influenzavirus C
These viruses are only distantly related to the human parainfluenza viruses, which are RNA viruses belonging to the paramyxovirus family that are a common cause of respiratory infections in children such as croup, but can also cause a disease similar to influenza in adults.
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INFLUENZA
11. INFLUENZA
10. Comparison of The Efficacy of Artesunate-Amodiaquine with Quinine-Clindamycin for Treatment of Uncomplicated Falciparum Malaria in Children
Malaria has been a scourge of mankind
for centuries. 1 Malaria (mala means
bad and aria means air) 2 is an acute and
chronic protozoan illness characterized
by paroxysms of fever, chills, sweats, fatigue, anemia,
and splenomegaly.3 Malaria is a major communicable
disease of the tropics and subtropics, killing more than
one million people each year,4 and is undergoing a
resurgence in areas where it was previously controlled.5
This disease is distributed throughout tropical
countries but its incidence is lower in dry climates and
at high altitudes.6 Results from malariometric survey
showed high parasite rates (parasite rates of more than
2%) in endemic malaria in Sumatra Utara Province
from 1989 until 1993.8
Chloroquine-resistant strains of P falciparum
have been reported from many areas of the world,
i.e., Indian subcontinent, Southeast Asia, Oceania,
Panama, and South America and from extensive
areas of East Africa. If chloroquine-resistance is.......
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10. Comparison of The Efficacy of Artesunate-Amodiaquine with Quinine-Clindamycin for Treatment of Uncomplicated Falciparum Malaria in Children
09. Comparison of Peak Expiratory Flow Rate (Pefr) Before and After Physical Exercise in Obese and Non-Obese Children
Pediatric obesity is an important health problem
and represents an uncontrolled worldwide
epidemic. There is an increasing prevalence
of pediatric and adolescent obesity in Europe,
USA, and even in less developed countries. 1 The
prevalence of childhood obesity is estimated to be
25 to 30 percent, and since 1981, it has increased by
54% in children aged 6 to 11 years. Medical record
data of Medical School, University ofIndonesia, Cipto
Mangunkusumo Hospital, showed that there were
100 new cases of obesity in the Pediatric Department
during the period from 1995 - 2000.2
Obesity imposes additional stress on ventilation
during exercise and even results in pulmonary
function impairment. In fact, physical activities are
more strenuous for obese children than their healthy
non-obese peers. They become breathless more easily
during graded exercise.3 Pulmonary function tests
have long been recognized as an important medium for............
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09. Comparison of Peak Expiratory Flow Rate (Pefr) Before and After Physical Exercise in Obese and Non-Obese Children
08. Comparison of Oxygen Saturation Measured by Pulse Oximetry and Arterial Blood Gas Analysis in Neonates
RfPid changes in arterial blood gas values are
common in critically ill patients.! Arterial
blood gas is usually beneficial to discern the
ature of gas exchange disturbances, the
effectiveness of compensation, Z,3 and is required for
adequate management. 4 Blood gas provides
information on oxygenation, carbon dioxide
homeostasis, and acid-base balance, and therefore is
the most important tool utilized in evaluating the
adequacy of pulmonary function.5 Although arterial
partial pressure of oxygen (PaOz) is the standard
measurement of blood oxygenation, the oxygen
saturation measured by pulse oximetry (SapOz) is now
a customary noninvasive assessment of blood
oxygenation in newborn infants.6 Pulse oximetry is a
noninvasive and reliable method to detect
hypoxemia.! Using pulse oximetry, oxygen saturation
can easily be monitored continuously at the bedside.3
Comparison of oxygen saturation by pulse oximetry
and arterial blood gas analysis has been reported by
several authors. 7-9 They found different values
between SaOz and SapOz'..........
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08. Comparison of Oxygen Saturation Measured by Pulse Oximetry and Arterial Blood Gas Analysis in Neonates
07. Comparison of Once a Day and Three Times a Day Iron Treatment in 9-12 Year Old Elementary School Children with Iron Deficiency Anemia
I ron deficiency anemia (IDA) is anemia caused
by deficit in the iron required for hemoglobin
synthesis. IDA is the commonest anemia found,
particularly in developing countries; it is caused
by socio-economic problems, a low intake of animal
proteins, and endemic parasite infestations. I -3 The
prevalence of iron deficiency anemia is higher in
infants, school age and adolescent children; 1 this
is also true in Indonesia. 2-5 In United States, the
prevalence of iron deficiency in children aged one
to two years old was 9%, with 3% suffering from
anemia.6 Iron deficiency can cause negative effects on
the growth and development of children. In addition
to mild complications, severe complications can
occur such as immune system impairment, decreased
intelligence and other mental diseases which can
persist beyond the pediatric age group ifleft untreated
properly. Iron therapy gives a rapid response with a
peak in reticulocyte response after five to seven days
followed by an increase in hemoglobin level of 1-2..........
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07. Comparison of Once a Day and Three Times a Day Iron Treatment in 9-12 Year Old Elementary School Children with Iron Deficiency Anemia
06. Comparison of Blood Glucose Levels in Breastfed vs. Formula-fed Low Birth Weight Infants
Prematurity has historically been defined as an
infant born with birth weight::; 2500 grams.1
In 1961, a low birth weight infant was defined
by the World Health Organization (WHO)
as weight at birth of less than 2500 grams. 1,l Low
birth weight (LBW) infants remain a significant
public issue as this is the leading cause of neonatal
death, also a long-term cause of neurodevelopmental
disturbances and health problems including low
blood glucose.l
Low blood glucose (hypoglycemia) is common in
newborn infants.3-7 Affected infants usually have no
symptoms, therefore this condition is easily missed.
Prolonged hypoglycemia may result in long-term
adverse neurodevelopmental outcomes.3 Pre term
babies are more likely to develop hypoglycemia than
full-term babies.6,7 The incidence of hypoglycemia in
neonates varies between 1.3 and 3 per 1000 live births.
Hypoglycemia is common to premature babies and
small for gestational age (SGA) babies.8 Hypoglycemia
is not a common condition in normal newborn babies
and early breastfeeding will prevent it......
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06. Comparison of Blood Glucose Levels in Breastfed vs. Formula-fed Low Birth Weight Infants
05. Comparison of Blood Glucose Level Between Breast-Fed and Formula-Fed Term Babies
Glucose is an important metabolic fuel for human body mainly the brain. Hypoglycemia is common in newborns, especially in the first day of life, which isusually asymptomatic and consequently difficult to recognize. Breastmilk is naturally designed for feeding of the newborns up to the age of 6 months. In the first few hours and days oflife, the breasts start to produce and release milk in response to changes in the hormonal milieu and stimulus of the infant's suckling.
Physiologically the glucose levels are lowest in the first two to three hours after birth. Full-term infants can have blood glucose concentrations as low as 55-60 mg/dl in the two to four hours of life, and then rise to 70-80 mg/dl after 72 hours.4,5 Low blood glucose concentration can occur in day two to three after birth in breastfed full-term infants.6 Costello et aU report that blood glucose and ketones rise along with age in 0-48 hours of life. Heck and Erenberg8 report low blood glucose concentration in formula-fed babies than that of the breastfed ones. Hawdon et al9 state that in the first ............
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05. Comparison of Blood Glucose Level Between Breast-Fed and Formula-Fed Term Babies
04. Bioremediation of CCA-Treated Wood By Brown-Rot Fungi Fomitopsis Palustris, Coniophora Puteana, and Laetiporus Sulphureus
This study evaluated oxalic acid accumulation and bioremediation of chromated copper arscnate (CCA)-treated wood by three brown-rot fungi Fomitopsis palustris Coniophora puteane, and Laetiporus sulphureas. The fungi were first cultivated in a fermentation broth to accumulate oxalic acid. Bioremediation of CCA-treated wood was then carried out by leaching of heavy metals with oxalic acid over a 10-day fermentation period. Higher amounts of oxalic acid were produced by F. polustris and L. sulphureus compared with C. puteana. After 10-day fermentation, oxalic acid accumulation reached 4.2g/l and 3.2g/l for these fungi, respectively. Fomitopsis palustris and L. sulohureus exposed to CCA-treated sawdust for 10 days showed a decrease in arsenic of 100% and 85% respectivcly: however. C. puteane remediation removed only 18% arsenic from CCA-treated sawdust. Likewise, chromium removal in F. palutris and L. sulphureus remediation processes was higher than those for C. puteana. This was attributed to low oxalic acid accumulation. These results suggest that F. palustris and L. sulphureaus remediation processes can remove inorganic metal compounds via oxalic acid production by increasing the acidity of the substrate and increasing the solubility of the metals.
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04. Bioremediation of CCA-Treated Wood By Brown-Rot Fungi Fomitopsis Palustris, Coniophora Puteana, and Laetiporus Sulphureus
03. Association Between Soil-Transmitted Helminthiasis and Hemoglobin Concentration In Primary School Children
Objectives To determine the association between intestinal helminthiasis and hemoglobin (Hb) concentration and to observe the effect of single dose albendazole treatment on Hb concentration. Methods An experimental study was carried out from March to July 2002 on primary school children at Suka Village, Tiga Panah Subdistrict, Karo Regency, North Sumatera Province. From 366 children who suffered from helminthiasis, 113 were selected as subjects by simple random sampling. Subjects were treated with a single oral dose of 400 mg albendazole. Hb concentration was examined using the cyanide method twice i.e., prior to and three months after treatment with albendazole_ Results It was found that among 113 subjects, the prevalences of Ascaris lumbricoides, Trichuris trichiura, and mixed infestation were 18.3%, 40.4%, and 41.3%, respectively, while the prevalence of anemia was 33.0%. There was no significant difference in age, gender, nutritional status, and mean Hb concentration between children suffering from the different types of worm infestation (P>0_05). For each type of infestation, there were significant differences in mean Hb concentration and anemia prevalence before and after treatment (P < 0.05) Conclusions There was no difference between the Hb concentrations of children suffering from Ascaris lumbricoides, Trichuris trichiura, and mixed-type worm infestations. Single dose 400 mg albendazole was beneficial in increasing Hb concentration and reducing the occurrence of anemia
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03. Association Between Soil-Transmitted Helminthiasis and Hemoglobin Concentration In Primary School Children
02. Bioconversion of Oil Palm Trunk Derived Lignocellulose to Reducing Sugars
By increasing the oil palm area, the availability of lignocellulosic materials, i.e. oil palm trunks (OPT), will also increase accordingly. This material is assumed to possess multipurpose utilization, including that as a result of the high carbohydrate content which will be suitable as sugar-producing raw material. An investigation on bioconversion was conducted to convert OPT-originated lignocellulose to reduce sugar by selected white-rot fungi mediation. Phanerochaete chrysosporium ME446 and Humicola grisea DSM2691 were used with fiber collected from the inner-part of OPT as substrate. Single and double isolate inoculations were performed into a medium consisting of 5 g OPT's fiber, 0.015 g (NH4)2SO4 0.08 g yeast extract, 0.08 g KH2P04, and 10 mL H20 for 30 days under room condition. Analyses performed were chemical characterization, and detennination of reducing sugar content, glucosamine content, and microscopic structure of OPT's fiber. The results showed that lignocellulosic and starch contents varied according to sample position on the OPT. The upper part was dominated by starch (65%), whereas the lower part contained more lignocellulose (68%). The OPT lignocellulose is composed of 25% lignin and 57% cellulose. Reducing sugars produced in P. chrysosporium and H. Grisea cultures were 50 and 58 mg/g, respectively, whereas double inoculation resulted in 80 mg/g reducing sugars.
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02. Bioconversion of Oil Palm Trunk Derived Lignocellulose to Reducing Sugars
01. Application of Modified Supercritical Carbon Dioxide Extraction to Microbial Quinone Analysis
Supercritical carbon dioxide (scC02) was applied to extract microqial qui nones from activated sludge. Identification and analysis was then performed using highperformance liquid chromatography (HPLC) equipped with ultraviolet-visible (UV-Vis) detector and photodiode array detector (PDA). Extracted microbial quinones were trapped and separated as menaquinones (MK) and ubiquinones (Q) species using two Sep-Pak Plus Silica cartridges joined in series. Four ubiquinones and 12 menaquinones species were identified in 0.1 g dried activated sludge based on retention time and spectrum analysis. Among the tested various polar solvents, methanol showed to be the best modifier, based on the highest total quinone content extracted and the lowest dissimilarity index. The diversity index of quinone and the number of quinone species using methanol-modified scC02 were similar to that of the conventional method (organic solvent extraction)......
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01. Application of Modified Supercritical Carbon Dioxide Extraction to Microbial Quinone Analysis
